Clearinghouse on Educational Policy and Management College of Education · University of Oregon

		School Dress Codes and Uniform Policies by Wendell Anderson Opinions abound on what students should wear to class. But it's not only the fashion mavens who express strong feelings about clothing. School-board members, school administrators, teachers, parents, and students also enter the debate. Some people believe that requiring students in school settings to conform to a dress code improves student behavior, reduces differences among socioeconomic levels, and enhances students' self-confidence. Others say that policies stipulating dress codes or requiring school uniforms infringe upon students' First Amendment rights, stifle individuality, and impose unnecessary means of control. The argument over school dress codes and school-uniform policies continues to rage in the meeting rooms, administrative offices, and classrooms of public schools throughout the country. Two fundamental questions fan the fires of debate: Are restrictive dress codes a sound idea in a society that, theoretically at least, celebrates diversity over uniformity? Do dress codes and school-uniform policies decrease school violence and increase performance? Divided Camps Although the research data don’t show an absolutely clear link between dress and students’ behavior or performance, anecdotal evidence—and certainly many people’s perceptions—generally support some type of dress code in elementary, middle, and high schools, according to one camp’s view. The idea of school uniforms also appeals to many parents and teachers, especially in elementary and middle schools. Uniforms “are seen as a concrete and visible means of restoring order to the classrooms. Uniforms conjure up visions of parochial schools, which are perceived as safe, secure, and orderly learning environments” (Education Week 2001). In the other camp are some parents, civil libertarians, and students, particularly older ones, who oppose dress codes in general and uniform policies in particular. “Critics point to the fact that uniform requirements cramp students’ freedom of expression and amount to nothing more than a band-aid [sic] solution to the illness that ails our schools. They also point to the financial burden uniforms put on lower-income families” (Wills 2001). This Policy Report examines the issue of school dress codes and uniform policies from a variety of perspectives. The section below presents a brief history of dress codes and uniforms, focusing on the last fifteen years. On pages that follow, the report examines the motivations behind establishing dress codes in light of recent events and presents arguments for and arguments against dress codes and uniforms. Because so many legal issues have been raised over dress codes and uniforms, this report also examines some of the legal actions and important court decisions regarding restrictive dress codes and uniforms. And finally, the report offers suggestions and guidelines from a variety of sources for developing, implementing, and enforcing school dress codes and school-uniform policies. Fashion Show: A Brief History of Dress in Schools The presumption, variously expressed, that dress affects behavior and performance is, of course, not a new one. “Clothes make the man.” “The apparel oft proclaims the man.” “Good clothes open all doors.” “Beware of all enterprises that require new clothes.” The dictum “Dress right, act right” was heard often in schools in the 1950s and ’60s during campaigns to curb “juvenile delinquency.” In the 1950s, many school dress codes prohibited girls from wearing slacks. In the 1960s, many school administrators stipulated the length of girls’ skirts. Blue jeans, motorcycle boots, and black leather jackets were considered dangerous attire on boys and linked to gangs. In the 1980s, an effort to thwart growing gang activity in schools led school officials to reexamine their schools’ dress codes and consider policies requiring uniforms. Restrictive dress codes were introduced in many secondary schools with the intent of prohibiting gang attire. “These efforts have taken on a sense of considerable urgency in areas where gang activity threatens the safety of the school environment. Though gang members are known to intimidate others in various ways, their clothes have been a primary form of gang member identification” (Lane and others 1996). Public school districts and individual schools have long established dress codes proscribing certain clothing. The first public school known to have adopted uniforms was Cherry Hill Elementary in Baltimore, Maryland, in 1987. In 1994, Long Beach (CA) Unified School District (LBUSD) was the first school district to adopt a districtwide uniform dress code policy. The idea of dress codes and uniforms gained official sanction when President Clinton endorsed the idea of public-school uniforms in his 1996 State of the Union Address. Following Clinton’s direction, the U.S. Department of Education mailed A Manual of School Uniforms to all 16,000 school districts in the United States. With guidelines in hand, school boards and administrators began to develop dress codes and uniform policies. By 1999, 72 percent of New York City’s 675 elementary schools had a standardized dress code. In 2000, the Philadelphia School Board unanimously adopted a districtwide policy requiring some type of uniform. By 2000, in Miami, 60 percent of the public schools required uniforms; in Chicago, 80 percent. By 2000, 30 percent of the public schools in San Francisco, 50 percent of the schools in Cincinnati, 65 percent in Boston, 85 percent in Cleveland, and 95 percent in New Orleans had school-uniform programs. Also by 2000, 37 state legislatures, including those in California, Florida, Georgia, Indiana, Louisiana, Maryland, New York, Tennessee, Utah, and Virginia, had enacted legislation empowering local districts to set their own uniform policies. (Morris and Wells 2000) It’s not clear how many districts and schools now enforce a dress code or uniform policy. But the trend toward proscribing and prescribing what students wear to class continues to grow, along with the debate. Codes and Policies: Dressing Up Dress codes and uniform policies are not the same. Simply stated, dress codes state what must not be worn; uniform policies state what must be worn. The distinction is important, particularly in light of legal challenges. For example, dress codes that prohibit the wearing of clothing or symbols linked to gangs have been traditionally upheld by the courts, whereas uniform policies are sometimes viewed as violations of students’ rights. But uniform policies adopted to minimize gang-related violence are often viewed as issues of safety and upheld by the courts. (See “Dress Codes and Case Law” in this Policy Report.) The debate over what to wear at school has many levels and subplots. Officials in a number of districts and schools in recent years have tempered their approaches by enacting stricter dress codes rather than forcing the wearing of uniforms. School officials in Fayette County, suburban Atlanta, Georgia, for instance, decided in favor of a tighter dress code in 1999 in response to community demands (White 2000). The Marple Newtown School District in Newtown Square, Pennsylvania, chose a dress code rather than uniforms. The fairly typical code prohibits the wearing of tube tops, halter tops, cutoff shorts, short shorts, and clothes that promote alcohol or drugs. “Going from a loose dress code to school uniforms seemed like a knee-jerk reaction,” said Raj Chopra, superintendent of the suburban Philadelphia school system. “It seems like an easy solution, but our goal was to get students to dress for success” (in White 2000). But the solution remains far from easy. There are many layers to the debate. Adapting to Changing Fashions Some people claim that dress codes focus too much on girls’ fashions because girls’ fashions change more often than boys’ do. In a much publicized “fashion show” in September 2001 at Old Mill Senior High School in Millersville, Maryland, the outfit worn by senior Katrina Howard turned heads with her “inappropriate” attire: jeans cut with horizontal vents from waist to ankles and a midriff-baring one-strap halter top (Bowman and Bushweller 2001). The third annual Old Mill Fashion Show was an opportunity for administrators to display acceptable and unacceptable student dress as described in the school’s dress code. Girls’ fashions attracted the most attention. At the time, skin was in. But the Old Mill Senior High School dress code prohibited the wearing of tops and jeans that reveal too much skin. For boys, Old Mill’s dress code prohibited pants sagging to reveal underwear, cutoff T-shirts, tight skullcaps, and various techno-toys such as cell phones. Part of the problem schools face with implementing dress codes is that youth fashions change frequently and radically. It’s difficult for administrators to keep up; therefore, many schools adopt general dress codes. John Brucato, principal of Milford High School in Milford, Massachusetts, described to CNN his school’s dress code, which seems to encapsulate the principles in many dress codes: We ask our students to dress and groom themselves as individuals with a sense of responsibility and self-respect. So, it’s not a matter of what you must wear; it’s more of a matter of what we don’t feel is appropriate. Specifically, if it becomes disruptive, offensive, threatening, or provocative to others, is vulgar, displays tobacco or alcohol advertising, profanity, racial slurs, has disruptive images of gang-related symbols. (Brucato in CNN.com 2001a) In some respects, school-uniform policies are easier to maintain than dress codes. Part of the acceptance of uniforms has to do with style. The style of today’s uniforms is more relaxed to suit the times. The traditional blazer, white blouse, plaid skirt for girls and dark slacks, white shirt, school tie for boys are still seen. But more modern styles such as white T-shirts with blue jeans, denim shirts or skirts, and khaki pants with cargo pockets are not uncommon. French Toast, the largest manufacturer of school uniforms, features more than 4,000 uniform items. After President Clinton called for uniforms in his 1996 speech, many schools answered the call. And manufacturers and retailers also jumped on the bandwagon. In 1999, American families spent some $1.5 billion on uniforms (Marchant 1999). Major retailers such as Sears and Kmart stock uniforms. About two-thirds of uniforms are sold during the annual “back-to-school” season (BlueSuitMom.com 2000). But while the debate over dress codes and school uniforms rages, there is one point almost everyone agrees on: Student dress does not cause or will not cure all the ills facing our schools. Implementing a dress code or uniform policy should be only one of several changes designed to improve standards in schools, said Jay Goldman, editor of School Administrator. A dress code “as part of a wider array of policies and practices is probably a very good thing,” he said. “If done as a supposed quick fix, it is a terrible idea. Nothing is a quick fix in education” (Goldman in Marchant 1999). SIDEBAR Viewpoints “This [dress code] has been something we’ve been working on for five years now. We didn’t have a big problem before. We’re just being more rigid about it.” —Patricia Pitt, assistant principal, Old Mill Senior High School, Millersville, Maryland “We don’t have mandatory uniforms, but we do have a very strict dress code that includes all collared shirts that are to be tucked in. But since the only shorts we allow are uniform shorts, a lot our students end up wearing at least one part of the uniform on a regular basis.” —Rod Federwisch, principal, Anna Borba School, Chino, California “When parents come to enroll their children, we tell them right away that we’re a uniform school, and they say, ‘We know, we’re happy about it.’ Teachers and parents love the fact that we have uniforms. The children . . . Well, that’s a different story.” —DeLores Wilson, principal, Poplar Halls Elementary, Norfolk, Virginia SIDEBAR Principals Speak Out In 1999, three researchers set out to gather opinions on dress codes from school principals. They polled 240 principals chosen randomly from a national directory. Their sample was equally divided among principals of elementary, middle, and high schools. More than 60 percent of the principals responded; some even sent copies of their dress codes for the researchers to analyze. Following are some of the results of the survey: • About 85 percent of the principals believed that some sort of dress code was needed at their school. • More than half the principals said their schools had formally adopted a dress code. • Most principals believed that dress codes improve student behavior, reduce peer sexual harassment, prepare students for the work world, and are worth the effort it takes to enforce them. • Middle-school principals expressed the strongest support for mandatory uniforms. • High-school principals stated the strongest support for dress codes but were less enthusiastic about uniforms. • Principals in rural areas showed greater support for dress codes than principals in suburban and urban schools. • Urban principals showed greater support for uniforms, followed by suburban and rural principals. Wendell Anderson is a research analyst and writer for the ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management.