Clearinghouse on Educational Policy and Management College of Education · University of Oregon

		Research Findings: Uncertain Results Empirical research on the effects of dress codes and uniforms offers little guidance. So far, research on the effects of dress codes and school-uniform policies is inconclusive and mixed. No clear trends have emerged. Some researchers claim positive effects, and others claim no effects or, at best, perceived effects. Following is a summary of some of the major studies on dress codes and uniform policies. The studies are pre-sented in chronological order. A 1995 study, “Violence and Other Antisocial Behaviors in Public Schools: Can Dress Codes Help Solve the Problem?” (by Lillian Holloman, in White 2000), investigated the effectiveness of dress codes. The study identified the problems that students can get into because of their clothes and found that gang-related clothing, worn intentionally or unintentionally, can invite violence. Also, status clothing such as team jackets and designer sneakers can lead to theft and violence (in White 2000). In 1995, a year after implementing the first mandatory districtwide uniform policy in the country, the Long Beach Unified School District collected empirical data on the effects of uniforms on the school environment. The findings suggested that the district’s schools were safer; however, the findings did not offer clear evidence that uniforms decreased violence (Wilson 1999). A 1996 study titled “School Uniforms and Safety” found that school uniforms “reduce the emphasis on fashion wars and reinforce the acceptability of more practical, less costly school clothing.” The researcher, M. Sue Stanley, also concluded that uniforms may have a positive effect on school safety, and, because they are a low-cost intervention unlikely to do harm, are worth considering (in White 2000). A 1997 study, “Effects of Student Uniforms on Attendance, Behavior Problems, Substance Use and Academic Achievement,” empirically tested claims made by uniform advocates, using tenth-grade data from the “National Educational Longitudinal Study of 1988.” Researchers David Brunsma and Kerry Rockquemore succinctly stated: “Our findings indicate that student uniforms have no direct effect on substance use, behavioral problems or attendance” (Brunsma and Rockquemore 1998). In 1997, Sharon Shamburger Pate investigated two Florida school districts with mandatory uniform policies. In “The Influence of a Mandatory School Uniform Policy,” she reported mixed results: a significant improvement in academic achievement in elementary-school students and no significant decrease in discipline infractions among middle-school students (Pate 1999). A 1997 policy study, “School Violence Prevention: Strategies To Keep Schools Safe,” conducted by the Reason Public Policy Institute, examined how uniform policies fit into a school district’s overall safety and reform program. Researchers Alexander Volokh and Lisa Snell concluded that no single strategy to curb school violence and promote reform will work. Each district, each school is unique. The ideal violence-prevention policy will differ from school to school (in White 2000). In 1999, a report titled “Evaluation of School Uniform Policy at John Adams and Truman Middle Schools for Albuquerque Public Schools,” by Deborah Elder, concluded: “The uniform policy is one of several changes that have occurred in the two schools. While the impetus for positive change in the climate and academic focus on the school includes the uniform policy, the changes cannot be attributable solely [author’s italics] to the uniform policy. However, positive changes have indeed occurred, and the uniform policy is one of several variables that have caused the changes” (Elder 1999). In 2000, Lands’ End, the clothing retailer, in partnership with the National Association of Elementary School Principals, commissioned a telephone survey of principals that netted 755 responses. About one-fifth (21 percent) of the principals said their schools either have a school-uniform policy in place, are preparing one, or have one on their agenda for discussion. According to the principals surveyed, school-uniform policies had a positive effect on the following areas: image in the community (84 percent of principals surveyed); classroom discipline (79 percent); peer pressure (76 percent); school spirit (72 percent); concentration on schoolwork (67 percent); and school safety (62 percent) (NAESP 2000). In 2000, a survey by French Toast, a uniform manufacturer, reported that in New York City a year after dress codes were implemented, 68 percent of parents thought that uniforms helped improve the overall academic performance; 84 percent of parents said uniforms promoted equality between the sexes; 89 percent of guidance counselors thought that uniforms helped prepare students for an eventual work environment; and 59 percent of guidance counselors said the uniform policy created a safer learning environment (BlueSuitMom.com 2000). Conclusion Many educators and researchers point out that, though there may be declines in school violence and improvements in academic performance, it is difficult to attribute such results to dress codes or uniform policies. Other reforms are often enacted at the same time that dress codes or uniform policies are implemented. “Because no long-term empirical studies have been conducted to assess the effectiveness of school uniforms or specific dress codes, the results remain anecdotal and unproven” (Morris and Wells 2000). Almost everyone, however, agrees that more studies are needed. SIDEBAR Recommendations for Researchers “Lack of empirical evidence supporting school uniforms does not mean that school uniforms do not work” (King 1998). King made the following recommendations for researchers examining the effectiveness of school uniforms in preventing or reducing school violence: Focus on the means to adequately evaluate the effect of uniform policies on school violence. Conduct studies that investigate parents’, teachers’, and students’ perceptions of uniforms and violence prevention. Apply trend analyses to determine if any decline in violence represents true change or predictable change. Be sure studies specifically control for possible intervening variables associated with violence reduction to determine cause-and-effect relationships between uniforms and reduced violence. Compare the prevalence of violence in schools that have uniform policies with schools that have dress codes. Gather data from experimental groups (subjects required to wear uniforms) and control groups (subjects not required to wear uniforms). Examine how schools that require uniforms address the issue of providing uniforms for families that may not be able to afford them. (King 1998) SIDEBAR Viewpoints “I have never seen any study that showed a connection between style of dress and academic achievement.” —Pedro Aoguera, professor of education, University of California at Berkeley “Everyone I’ve talked to who has gone to uniforms likes it, felt it’s increased discipline and respect, and will even claim achievements have gotten a little better because kids are more focused on their studies.” —Paul Houston, executive director, American Association of School Administrators “[With uniforms] schools have fewer reasons to call the police. There’s less conflict among students. Students concentrate more on education, not on who’s wearing $100 shoes or gang attire.” — William Ellis, police chief, Long Beach, California “There is absolutely no evidence documenting even a correlation between dress codes and better test scores, let alone a causal connection.” —Nadine Strossen, president, American Civil Liberties Union